Shary identifies that the Reagan Administration of the 1980s predominantly represented ‘a new notion of American conservatism’, the effects of which are evidenced particularly within the teen films of the decade (2002, 142). The coming-of-age narratives found in the likes of John Hughes films such as Sixteen Candles (Hughes, 1984) and The Breakfast Club (Hughes, 1985) represented a shift from “youth-as-wild” to ‘less metaphoric narratives about youth actually enjoying the pleasures of rebellion and sensuality’ (ibid.). Vineberg too, considers cinema of Reagan’s decade as expected to host themes which promoted ‘a logical extension of Reagan’s invocation to the American people to stand tall and feel great about… [their] country’ (1993, 9). These themes in turn, were reproductions of similar notions felt during Eisenhower’s presidency in the 1950s, ideologies that Vineberg claims ‘seemed largely dedicated to the proposition of keeping the real world out’ of Hollywood cinema (ibid.).
However, despite these claims, Shary still acknowledges that during the 1980s, the sub-genre of teen (slasher) horror flourished with an excess of violence and sexual content; even more so than previous decades in the midst of the sexual liberation movement, during which traditional conventions of sexuality were challenged (2002,137). Such films are evidenced to inflict its violence against adolescent characters, punished for partaking in sexual pursuits with frightening imagery and an ultimately gory death (ibid.). Contextually, the HIV/AIDS epidemic- prominent over the course of the 1980s- presented an opportunity for horror filmmakers to capitalise on youth
anxieties and general moral panics surrounding sexuality and sex practices (Shary, 2002, 142). However, while this essay shall acknowledge specific texts evidenced with recurring practices of the 1980s teen slasher, it shall also consider and relate these codes and conventions to a text not inherently associated with the genre.
Walt Disney Studio’s The Black Cauldron (Berman & Rich, 1985), an adaptation of the first two books of Lloyd Alexander’s The Chronicles of Prydian series, was the most expensive animated feature produced by Disney during the time of its release. The film follows the adventures of a young boy, Taran (Grant Bardsley), assistant pig-keeper of an ocular, foretelling pig named Hen-Wen whom he must protect from the evil clutches of the tyrannical Horned King (John Hurt). Beyond its expensive production and pioneering utilisation of both 2D and computer-generated animation, as well as Dolby six-channel surround sound, The Black Cauldron holds significance as the first Disney animated film to receive a PG rating (Kendrick, 2009, 183). On the surface, The Black Cauldron can be identified- similarly to Hughes’ films- as a “coming-of-age” tale which sees its protagonist mature through the experiences he faces; with Robert McKee identifying Disney animation as ‘intrinsically linked to the use of the “maturation plot”… to the targeted audience who are embracing its emotional trajectories’ (Wells, 2002, 104).
However, despite the film’s aforementioned technological innovations, critics responses to the narrative’s darker, violent imagery sparked fear amongst parents that the film would not be suitable for younger audiences, and as a result the film failed at the box office (Davis, 2006, 155). In regards to its frightening themes, Davis claims there to be no evidence which suggests the studio purposefully experimented with appealing to an older target audience (ibid.). Though in opposition to this, Rockoff’s studies can be applied; identifying Disney’s contemplation of acquiring the creative rights to Wes Craven’s slasher film A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) (Hereafter Nightmare) around the same period (2002, 154).
While the slasher sub-genre dominated horror features of the 1980s- with popular films such as Friday the 13th (Cunningham, S.S.,1980) and The Burning (Maylam, T.,1981)- Rockoff identifies that the genre was presented with ‘a much needed jolt of adrenaline’ in Nightmare (ibid., 150). The first instalment of what would later become a populous horror franchise, Nightmare follows teen Nancy (Heather Langenkamp) and her friends, who are plagued in their sleep by Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund), the vindictive entity of a burnt child murderer, armed with a knife-fingered glove. Shary identifies Nightmare as ‘typical of past slasher films’, evidencing a morality play theme which sees teenagers punished with death for their sexual exploits, and a killer with a goal of seeking revenge against supposed wrong-doings he faced in his past (Shary, 2002, 155). The text connotes aforementioned moral panics and teenage anxieties of the decade surrounding sexual violence, with an infamous shot from the film displaying Krueger’s bladed hand reaching out of bathwater in-between protagonist Nancy’s naked legs; connoting tensions surrounding violent virginal rape (fig. 1) (ibid., 155-156).
In relation to The Black Cauldron, perhaps the most obvious connection that can be drawn between the Disney feature and Nightmare’s slasher conventions is through each film’s physical construction of their antagonistic threats. A comparison can be made between the horrific bodies of Freddy Krueger and the Horned King, both of which mask skeletal frames. While Krueger’s body is comprised of burnt flesh and mauled clothing; during teenager Tina’s (Amanda Wyss) nightmare sequence towards the beginning of the film, whilst clawing at Krueger’s face in an attempt to escape his grasp, Tina easily pulls away at the skin, revealing- in a graphic close-up- the bloodied skull beneath. In direct comparison, the Horned King’s features are masked beneath a dark, blood-red cape and hood for the majority of the film; his long, skeletal fingers protruding out his sleeves, not unlike Krueger’s sharp, bladed glove (fig. 2).
Davis identifies the Horned King as one of Disney’s most inhuman and physically monstrously villains (2013, 214). In comparison, a reference is made to multiple other Walt Disney Studios features, most relevantly, The Little Mermaid (Clements & Musker, 1989), which premiered only four years following The Black Cauldron. The Little Mermaid’s lead antagonist, the sea witch Ursula, is compared by Davis to the Horned King. Davis identifies that while Ursula is technically constructed as nonhuman, an octopus, her upper body is still humanoid, and so ‘no more monstrous, in her way, than any of the merfolk (Ariel included), as they are all half human, half sea creature’ (ibid.). The Horned King in contrast, is entirely Other; he is a moving, talking, fully-functioning skeleton, with animalistic antlers and ‘is possessed of an evil which is completely devoid of the touches of humour (let alone high camp) that typically serves to migrate the menace of most other Disney villains’ (ibid.). Even in comparison to Nightmare’s Freddy Krueger- who often makes japes, such as amusedly mutilating his own body to further terrorise his victims- the Horned King is entirely devoid of emotion beyond his desire to obtain the power of the black cauldron.
Even in some of Walt Disney Studio’s earliest animated works, such as the short film, The Skeleton Dance (Disney, 1929), gothic themes of skeletal contortionism can be identified and thus related to The Black Cauldron’s construction of its inhuman villain (fig. 3). In reference to The Skeleton Dance, Wells claims that ‘some of the most powerful images in the horror genre have actually been created in the field of animation’; a creative space where vast and often eccentric narratives, a capability for body mutilation, and the ‘collapsing codes and conventions of social and cultural identity’ are all common (2000, 101, 104). With this assessment of animation in mind, it does not seem outlandish therefore, to associate the Horned King’s animated construction of character with themes typically associated with the horror genre.
Beyond Nightmare, a second slasher film of the 1980s can be cross-examined with The Black Cauldron. Cult film Sleepaway Camp (Hiktzik, 1983) follows cousins Ricky (Jonathan Tiersten) and the scarred, introverted Angela (Felissa Rose), sent to Camp Arakak for the summer where sundry gruesome murders befall the campers and councillors. As Rockoff notes, while the film itself is considered inferior to surrounding slashers of the period, Sleepaway Camp still holds prominence for its ‘realistic depiction of teenagers… [and] hilarious over-the-top performances’ (2002,146). The most notable feature however, is the film’s twist climax, in which it transpires that not only is Angela the killer, but is also secretly a boy, forced into posing as their deceased twin sister by their estranged aunt. Newman identifies that themes of gender confusion are a popular feature of the slasher killer’s identity, harkening back to Norman Bates of Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960); and that Sleepaway Camp makes a ‘deliberate attempt to outdo Psycho’ with a ‘boy raised-as-girl’ scenario (1988, 149).
The final scene of Sleepaway Camp can similarly be compared to the monstrous depiction of the Horned King. Having snuck away to the beach-front with her boyfriend Paul, Angela is found by councillors Ronnie and Susie, caressing the decapitated head of Paul, before she stands in a ‘genuinely shocking shot’, full-frontally naked, covered in blood and growling gutturally, ‘now completely feral’ (Leeder, 2018, 130) (fig. 4). While Angela’s body is not inherently monstrous in an other-wordily or decayed sense, the contrast between Angela’s prior construction as a meek, feminine figure and this unexpected gender reveal can be assessed as horrific.
Again, similarly to the construction of Psycho’s Norman Bates, who Bronfen suggests as ‘neither masculine or feminine, mother nor son, fetish, corpse, nor living body’ (1998, 31), Angela’s dysphoric gender presentation is identified as the core motivation of their murderous pursuits. Visually, a correlation could be drawn between Angela’s wide open mouth and unblinking eyes during Sleepaway Camp’s final scene, to that of the Horned King, who similarly snarls, the movements of his jaw wide, and voice echoing. In particular, as the Horned King delivers a speech whilst he begins to raise his “cauldron born” army of skeletons, he looks upwards, the frame positioned overhead in an invasive close-up of his face, one of the most visible insistences of his features throughout the film.
Beyond The Black Cauldron’s similarities to Nightmare and Sleepaway Camp’s presentation of monstrous villainy, is its identification of teen sexuality. Firstly, in regards to phallic imagery, Davis identifies the pronounced symbolic implication of protagonist Taran’s connection to a great sword with which he is granted immense power (2013, 44). Using Freudian theory, Davis points to Maertens, who acknowledges phallic imagery to extend beyond the identification of a physical penis, to cylindrical apparatus functioning as ‘a symbol of male social power and the mystery that surrounds it in patriarchal cultures’ (ibid.). While Taran starts the narrative as unsure, dreaming of proving himself to be more than an assistant-pig keeper; his goals are realised when he steals the sword’s power for himself. It is then that Taran transcends the constraints of adolescence, and thus, ‘the moment he realises the power of the large sword he has acquired… Taran’s attitude changes’
(ibid.). He no longer follows the self-assured and adaptable Princess Eilonwy through the Horned King’s castle from this moment on, rather he is using his newfound power and “saving” her (fig. 5).
Similarly, it could be disputed that Angela’s consistent use of phallic objects such as a knife and a curling iron in order to inflict harm upon those at Camp Arakak who who tease or abuse her, is a method by which Angela re-appropriates their suppressed and otherwise castrated male identity; replacing the nugatory penis with a symbolic object of masculine power (Leeder, 2018, 130).
In regards to Nightmare - as aforementioned- Freddy Krueger’s bladed glove can be considered symbolic of a phallic tool of sexual violation; with him even going as far as asserting its self-imposed dominance as he raises his hand, claiming, “this is god”. The way in which Krueger is presented to sneak up upon his victims, weaponised hand outstretched ready to strike, can be directly compared to that of the Horned King approaching Taran from behind, looming over the boy, his long, protruding, claw-like fingers poised over his head. Wells identifies that within
the slasher-sub-genre, primitive acts of brutal violence are ‘usually enacted with a knife, an axe, or similar sharp instrument’ which can signify ‘sadistic rape-orientated narratives’ (2000, 79). This assessment can be used in support of the notion that The Black Cauldron- similarly to Nightmare and Sleepaway Camp- present its antagonistic threat as armed with a violent means of (sexual) assault.
However, sex and violence can also be applied to the Nightmare’s narrative more broadly. As discussed, horror films of the 1980s commonly identified morality themes which saw teenage characters punished with death for the deviant behaviour, particularly sexual exploits. The most explicit incident of this sees Tina slashed to death by Krueger in her sleep after having sex with her boyfriend, Rod, in her mother’s bed. Wells claims can again be applied, identifying that the post-Psycho horror film represented ‘the systematic collapse of assurance in, and promotion of, the family and conservative family values’ (ibid., 85). Tina’s disregard for her mother’s space, as well as Nightmare’s more broadly identifiable lack of caring parental figures support this notion. Moreover, so-called ‘conservative family values’ such as the durability of the nuclear family, too, are evidenced as non-existent within both Sleepaway Camp and The Black Cauldron’s narratives as well.
In relation to The Black Cauldron, while explicit narrative themes regarding the punishment of teen sexuality are not present, the construction of certain scenes mirror the technical aspects of these themes from both Nightmare and Sleepaway Camp. In particular, all three texts can be evidenced to make use of what Wood identifies as ‘the look’ adopted by the slasher film’s killer. Wood claims there to exist a ‘strikingly insistent use’ of first-person perspective camera shots within ‘teenie-kill and violence against women movies’ in order to signal the killer’s pursuit of their victim. (2003, 177). These shots, Wood identifies, are marked by critics as ‘an invitation to sadistic indulgence on the part of the spectator’ (ibid.) and also function as a means of presenting the voyeuristic pleasure which the antagonist derives from stalking, observation and ultimately, chase and capture. Nightmare exhibits Nancy’s pursuit in a rapid sequence from Freddy’s perspective, a scene in which Kruger’s menacing, pleasured laughter can be heard amidst the scene’s tense accelerando
score.
Sleepaway Camp makes use of “the look” more liberally, depicting scenes both from Angela’s perspective, as well as that of other characters, implicating red-herring killers. One particular scene sees Angela being observed from the perspective of Paul, obstructed behind nearby bushes. The use of a first-person perspective shot in this instance might be assessed as implicit of teenage sexual desire, with Angela the subject of Paul’s voyeuristic gaze, and in turn, the scopophilic observation of the audience. The Black Cauldron’s use of a first-person perspective shot- similarly to both slasher texts- derives from the observation of an antagonistic threat. From the perspective of one of the Horned King’s twin pet dragons, the oracular pig Hen-Wen is chased in a violent tracking pursuit which transforms from a long shot into a medium close-up of the terrified pig as the dragon’s sharp, pronounced talons enclose in on its victim (fig. 6).
One final correlation which can be made between Disney’s The Black Cauldron and the slasher film of the 1980s, is the presence of the virginal character, the “Final Girl”. Leeder identifies the Final Girl as a ‘phallic woman of Freudian theory’ who aims to dismantle the voyeuristic gaze of the murderous stalker by aiming to eliminate the killer herself (2018, 138). Nightmare’s protagonist Nancy clearly evidences such themes. Subtextually, it could be inferred that Nancy’s abstinence from sex and thus her virginal purity is what ultimately protects her from death at the hands of Krueger. However, narratively speaking, it is Nancy’s confidence and adaptability which allows her to construct a plan and physical traps in order to capture Freddy outside of her dream state and destroy his restless spirit. On the other hand, Sleepaway Camp’s Angela, according to Leeder, subverts the expectation of the virginal young woman. In Sleepaway Camp, ‘the killer and the Final Girl collapse into one’ (ibid., 130); simultaneously acknowledging the common association between shyness and femininity with the virginal figure, as well as the potential for manipulation of the Final Girl’s phallic empowerment.
The Black Cauldron’s Princess Eilonwy can be assessed to simultaneously support the empowering position of the Final Girl, while also rejecting it. When Eilonwy is first introduced in the dungeons of the Horned King’s castle, the film’s hero Taran is seemingly lost, emasculated by his capture and without purpose beyond a desire to escape. Eilonwy on the other hand appears optimistic in her pursuit of a solution to her capture, empowered by her own magical power in the form of a shining ball of light which helps her find her way. A comparison could also be made between Eilonwy and the Final Girl through her physical construction compared to that of The Black Cauldron’s few other female characters. Davis identifies that Eilonwy can be differentiated from other the female characters due to her girlhood and self-assured spirt, a notion contributed by her pre-pubescence; which Davis identifies as a key factor of earlier Disney heroines who are ‘generally given much more freedom to be adventurous’ (2006, 158).
Besides the princess Eilonwy, the only other female characters of The Black Cauldron are: a non-speaking exotic dancer, whose role it is to sensually perform for the Horned King’s henchmen, Hen-Wen the pig, and the three witches, ‘portrayed as, sexually-frustrated, deceptive, ugly old women’ (ibid.). Thus, a connection could be drawn between Eilonwy’s physical construction to that of characters such as Nancy and Angela (pre-monstrous reveal). All three young women are outwardly
represented as conventionally attractive; they have clear skin, soft features, and often carry their voice in a calm, soothing manner. They are each the subject of male affections, though choose not act upon sexual desires. Driscoll identifies that virginity within the teen film is a key thematic element as ‘it is one place in which to see the negotiation of individual choice and socially established norms’ (2011, 71). In this respect- as the virginal Final Girl- Eilonwy exerts her individual choice not by explicitly abstaining from the sexual acts, but rather by actively making an attempt to thwart the antagonist threat that otherwise poses as a violating force against her.
In a boarder social context too, Eilonwy’s capabilities might be considered representative of a relaxed outlook on women in working positions. Davis identifies the 1980s as an American era were ‘the notion that men and women- and certainly boys and girls- could work together on equal terms was finally entering into mainstream thinking’, and considers Eilonwy and Taran to be representative of this (2006, 161). However, in dispute of this, it could be debated that Eilonwy’s efforts are ultimately pushed aside as the narrative progresses. As aforementioned, once Taran obtains his phallic power from the great sword, his submissive attitude transforms; while at the same time, Eilonwy’s own strength is practically disregarded. Her magical capabilities are all but forgotten, and at the climax of the narrative, Taran alone is praised by his master, Dallben, who claims “you did well my boy”, solidifying this position as the narrative’s sole hero.
In conclusion, though ultimately The Black Cauldron cannot directly be considered a teen slasher film, it can still be assessed to evidence subtextual themes within its narrative which directly correlate with some of the horrific themes and moral panics associated with the horror genre during Reagan’s presidency. The horrific physical construction of the Horned King is perhaps most easily applicable to the likes of the teen horror antagonist; while more explicit conventions of the teen slasher such as the exploration of adolescent sexuality and violation, can be implicated as more
subtextual through the use of textual analysis. As Driscoll identifies, the repetitiveness of the teen horror sub-genre is ‘predictable, derivative and exploitative’, its virginal and promiscuous victims even more so (2011, 83, 86). Therefore, with this notion in mind, it could be understood that the easily identifiable and repetitive nature of such genre themes can be comfortably applied to texts such as The Black Cauldron, which transcend beyond the narrative boundaries of the teen horror genre.
References:
Berman, T. & Rich, R. (dirs.) (1985) The Black Cauldron. [DVD] Buena Vista Distribution.
Bronfen, E. (1998) The Knotted Subject: Hysteria and its Discontents. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Clements, R. & Musker, J. (dir.) (1989) The Little Mermaid. [DVD] Buena Vista Distribution.
Cunningham, S.S. (dir.) (1980) Friday the 13th [DVD] Warner Bros.
Craven, W. (dir.) (1984) A Nightmare on Elm Street. [DVD] New Line Cinema.
Davis, A.M. (2006) Good Girls & Wicked Witches: Women in Disney’s Feature Animation. Herts, United Kingdom: John Libbey Publishing Ltd.
Davis, A.M. (2013) Handsome Heroes & Vile Villains: Men in Disney’s Feature Animation. Herts, United Kingdom: John Libbey Publishing Ltd.
Disney, W. (dir.) (1929) The Skeleton Dance. Silly Symphony. [DOWNLOAD] Columbia Pictures.
Driscoll, K. (2011) Teen Film: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Berg.
Hiltzik, R. (dir.) (1983) Sleepaway Camp. [DVD] United Film Distribution Company.
Hitchcock, A. (dir.) Psycho. [DVD] Paramount Pictures.
Hughes, J. (dir.) (1984) Sixteen Candles. [DVD] Universal Pictures.
Hughes, J. (dir.) (1985) The Breakfast Club. [DVD] Universal Pictures.
Kendrick, J. (2009) Hollywood Bloodshed: Violence in 1980s American
Cinema. United States of America: board of Trustees. Southern Illinois University.
Leeder, M. (2018) Horror Film: A Critical Introduction. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Maylam, T. (dir.) (1981) The Burning. [DVD] Filmways Pictures.
Newman, K. (1988) Nightmare Movies, The New Edition: A Critical History of the Horror Movie from 1968. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Limited.
Rockoff, A. (2002) Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978-1986. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.
Shary, T. (2002) Generation Multiplex: The Youth in Contemporary American Cinema. United States of America: University of Texas Press.
Vineberg, S. (1993) No Surprises, Please: Movies in the Reagan Decade. New York: Schirmer Books.
Wells, P. (2000) The Horror Genre: From Beelzebub to Blair Witch. Great Britain: Wallflower Publishing Limited.
Wells, P. (2002) Animation and America. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.
Wood, R. (2003) Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan… and Beyond. Expanded and Revised Edition. New York: Columbia University Press.
Comentários